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Ecological SurvivalParks, Open Spaces and Natural Areas are Essential to Ecological Survival
The forest has both a presence and is a symbol of forces in natural systems that transcend human powers and utility. Like the sea or the sky, the forest is a kind of archetype of the foundations of the world. The central "goods" of the biosphere .. forests are a symbol of the timeless natural givens that support everything else. (Rolston, 1996)
Forests play a vital role in maintaining natural environmental systems, thus contributing to ecologically sustainable development in the following ways:
Forests play a significant role in protecting biodiversity; tropical forests cover 9% of the earth's surface but support about one-half of the 1.4 million named species found among the entire world biota (Schucking & Anderson, 1991). Some conservation biologists believe that 25% of all species may become extinct during the next 20 to 30 years. (Botkin & Talbot, 1992)
Protecting biodiversity has several benefits:
Residents- perceived a special value in living next to a wooded area, as it changed the character of an otherwise urban region to one that seemed more rural. (Kaplan et al., 1989)
A survey of "personal responses to nature contacts" indicated very positive feelings about being in nearby-nature areas; 85% found this relaxin g (restful, soothing); 76% found it enjoyable; 40% found it a chance to 'escape worries'; 32% indicated it gave them time to think, and let thoughts wander. (Kaplan et al., 1989)
In 1994, 467 people were surveyed regarding "wilderness stewardship issues and management". Over 100 issues were identified; the top three (plus four others , #8, 10, 11, 12) directly related to the stewardship of the biophysical resource and the need for better/more management of the biophysical components of wilderness. Also, two new trends emerged, more education of nontraditional and traditional users plus more wilderness education in schools, and biocentric philosophies in the general public; (Barns et al., 1995)
During the past decade, the Nature Conservancy has received more than 250,000 acres of land donated for the preservation and conservation of natural areas. Also, corporations and forest land owners make their land available for public recreation; forest land owners generally feel that people will take better care of the property if they can use it in a positive atmosphere as welcome guests; this helps to control fires, litter, theft, damage to equipment, and other problems. (Private and Commercial Recreation, in Jensen, 1995)
Tourism results in positive influences on natural resources such as:
In British Columbia, Douglas-fir forests have been saved from clearcutting because conservation and tourism organizations demonstrated that the natural forests are more valuable for tourism than logging;
A business research report stated that in terms of parks and open space, studies show that:
Urban trees can improve air quality. In 1991, trees in the City of Chicago (11 percent tree cover) removed an estimated 15 metric tons of carbon monoxide, 84 tons of sulfur dioxide, 89 tons of nitrogen dioxide, 191 tons of ozone and 212 tons of particulate matter less than 10 microns. As well as impacting human health, the value of this pollution removal in 1991 was estimated at $1 million. (McPherson et al., 1994)
Both the availability of nearby nature and the individuals degree of involvement with nearby nature contributes strongly to neighbourhood satisfaction levels. (Kaplan et al., 1989)
Increased concern with providing and maintaining trees and with creating a variety of natural settings both in and near urban neighbourhoods. These are the elements that have been shown to affect an individual's well-being. (Kaplan et al., 1989)
The National Park Service reports that our scenic areas are affected by pollution more than 90% of the time - in all areas of the continental United States. The long term effects of pollution results in poorer health for animals and humans, and increased levels of stress. Of all the fresh water on the earth, only .015% is usable by humans; because of pollution only a fraction of the available water can be used due to our mismanagement of our water resources. We have overharvested and overused our natural resources and are still doing so; many people have recognized the errors and are attempting to rectify them by rehabilitating and protecting nature. (Environmental Quality; in Jensen, 1995)
Greenways which help conserve plants and trees provide a valuable contribution toward pollution control because they mitigate water, air, and noise pollution. (NRPA, Benefits are Endless... National Park Service, 1994)
Research involving 1,600 households in Calgary showed that respondents whose past experience seems to precipitate a more object-centred, amenity oriented, utility based perspective on the natural environment are more likely to say they would put human need first in conflicts concerning natural areas in the city; less likely to put funding natural areas as a priority; less likely to support preservation strategies in general and more likely to favour the status quo re: parkland provision. Respondents with a past experience profile indicative of a less object-centered, more affiliation oriented perspective with urban nature:
Environmental agencies foster greater awareness of the finite limits of our natural resources like water and waterlife, vegetative cover, wildlife, climate, and atmosphere plus cultural resources such as prehistoric sites, settlements, legends, ethnic and national customs relating to the land. (Gunn, 1994)
In 1922, less than 1 million people visited the national parks of the U.S. Today, more than 300 million people take advantage of the opportunity to visit more than 350 units of the national park system. In 8 years between 1977 and 1985, wildlife observation increased 30% to surpass 110 million people, and 29 million of these took trips primarily for viewing wildlife. Nature tourism is a popular way to relieve stress. (Kuss et al., 1990)
Information prompts in a developed campground were shown to significantly reduce both littering and tree damage behaviour. (Oliver et al., 1985)
Dowell & McCool (1986) tested the effectiveness of three methods of teaching Boy Scouts a "leave no trace" ethic: a slide show, alone, a booklet alone, and a booklet/slide show combination. Both post-test and retention (one month after) scores were significantly greater than a control groups - no difference was found among the three methods.
The Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has a program that teaches volunteer leaders in the region's communities about wilderness concepts, values, and tow impact practices. Although knowledge was high going into the 1-4 hour workshops, knowledge gains were significant immediately after and remained higher three months after the workshop. (Jones & McAvoy, 1988)
Gamble, (1988) compared the effectiveness of outdoor education experiences and computer-assisted instruction in learning of environmental concepts. Similar content for 4 hours (over 4 days) was offered using both techniques; although both groups scored the same on pre-tests about factual knowledge about the environment, after treatment tests showed that those in the outdoor program had significant gains in comprehension and application of the material white those in the computer-assisted instruction did not. (Roggenbuck et al., 1991)
Several studies have searched for the precursors to or causes of environmental sensitivity. When active citizen conservationists and educators were questioned about what most prompted their involvement and success in environmental issues, the most consistent and important explanatory variable was long-term experience with relatively pristine environments, beginning at an early age. Outdoor education/recreation is the best available method for fostering environmental sensitivity. (Roggenbuck et al., 1991)
A study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of interpreter-guided field trips in changing the behaviour of grade school visitors to, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. "The children's behavioral intentions to not litter, to recycle materials, and to act in various ways to protect natural and cultural resources increased significantly from pre-trip to post-trip."
Similarly, these researchers found that a field trip visit to an historical site at the same national lakeshore "Significantly increased school children's attitudes toward protection of park resources, the conservation of park resources, and visiting parks and historic sites." (Roggenbuck et al., 1986)
Marcinkowski, Volk, & Hungerford, (1989), in their address to the UNESCO conference on environmental education, noted that outdoor education/recreation is the best available method for fostering environmental sensitivity.
Recreation and Parks board members are key players on regional, provincial, and national 'Tourism Action Committees' that provide protection to the resource, safeguard social, economic, and environmental qualities at the same time tourism is expanding and improving. Parks specialists and environmentalists have the knowledge and expertise that ensures integration of action with all community and surrounding area plans; solutions to gaps, problems and environmental limitations/constraints; policies on growth and sustainable development plus implementation and follow-up needed to ensure protection/preservation, and avoid stressful impact from the change. (Gunn, 1994)
Parks and recreation planners provide key services needed in the area of research results and ongoing opportunities for local citizens to participate in environmental planning. In the design and development process, planners encourage the innovation and creativity that adapts to new conditions and the needs of their communities. (Gunn, 1994)
Outdoor-education teaches people how to enjoy nature and enlarge their lives, both cognitively and affectivity. Environmental education programs show increases in knowledge of the environment, increased levels of social interaction, a decrease in socially inappropriate behaviours, and an increase in learning life-long outdoor leisure skills. (Schleien et al., 1993)
Outdoor programs provide a range of benefits; feelings of accomplishment, developing a connection to nature, making friends, improving overcoming natural obstacles and testing limits and becoming aware of, and appreciating the natural and cultural resources of the. (Schleine et al., 1993)
Aldo Leopold (1966) recognized the educational value of the outdoors: 'Every woodland or forest ... provides those who frequent it with a liberal education about nature." He stressed that recognizing nature as a community is a basic concept of ecology, but loving and respecting nature are the bases of ethics. Further educational benefits are that –some students who are bored in the classroom can be stimulated to learn through outdoor experiences. By observing wildlife (for example), they can be motivated to learn more about biology and ecology. (Values of Outdoor Opportunities, In Jensen, 1995)
For ten years, the Kaplans (1989) monitored the responses of teenagers and adults who experienced nine to fourteen days in a wilderness area of 17,000 acres in rural Michigan. The program was based on immersion in nature and learning skills such as tracking, compass reading, outdoor cooking and a 48 hour "solo". The most striking results of this study and others like it is the consistency of the findings. Participants universally experience inner discovery, enthusiasm for the experience, and the desire to make nature part of their future.
Similar to tribal peoples who sent their young males into the wilderness for self-affirming and spiritual awakening experiences known as vision quests. These cultures understood that in a natural place in which one can confront her or his fears, prove mastery and quiet one's life, one also becomes capable of shaking off the learned helplessness that hinders inner change. It becomes easier for one to figure out what matters and what does not. life becomes deeper, more meaningful, and more vital. (Roberts, 1996)
The 1991 Scouts' Alberta Provincial Jamboree incorporated the concepts of reduce, reuse, and recycle with recreation. Participation in environmentally responsible practices lead to garbage reduction (From 200 cubic meters to 66 cubic yards) and allowed Scouts to socialize and have fun at the same time with this program. (Friends of Environmental Education Society of Alberta, 1991)
The more individuals who have quality outdoor experiences, the greater the number of people can be expected to gain more of an appreciation for the natural environment. It was also found that students who attended resident outdoor schools exhibited a positive change of attitude regarding the concepts of conservation and human impact on the environment. Through adventure education we can increase the public knowledge of making wiser choices in the use of our natural resources. Through increasing public awareness and appreciation, we can save our natural environment for the future, so that everyone benefits. (Becker, 1977)
Park services provide research, policies and strategies, land use design, integrated planning and management that reduces conflict between the visitor and resident as each competes for the same amenities and helps to maintain diversity of use with as minimum a conflict as possible. Public servants provide information to the public about land-use proposals and assist/encourage all affected individuals and organizations to participate in land-use decision - making. (Gunn, 1994)
The Corps of Engineers developed the Texoma Reservoir in 1945 primarily for flood control and power production. The reservoir provided the opportunity for capital to be used in developing recreation; 2 years after completion, 2 million people visited the lake; five years later 4 million visitors, by 1957 8 million, and now between 12 and 16 million recreationists visit this site each year. In the five counties touching Texoma, direct expenditures by visitors exceed $40 million annually. The total expenditure impact equals $62 million per year, including the 1.55 multiplier effect. (Economic Factors in Jensen, 1995)
Based on an 8 year experiment on watersheds; a summary conclusion is; "flooding generally becomes more frequent and more destructive as a result of converting forests to other uses." (Kramer et al., 1995)
Parks and Recreation specialists conduct and communicate impact assessments and statements, plus work to include these protection, sustainable development type statements into the land-use planning regulation process in the early planning stages. (Wight, 1991)
Parks and recreational planners provide key benefits to the public; they consider capacity and understand capacity limits plus signs and dangers of overuse from three perspectives:
Critical judgement must guide the environmental impact assessment of tourism projects; both their application to the particular situation and interpretation of the information which is often a matter of degree, not a single right or wrong answer. Parks and recreation planners contribute the skills, knowledge, and commitment to provide this critical analysis and needed alternative perspective to the tourism developer. (Williams, 1994)
Use of geologically or environmentally sensitive areas for open space or recreation purposes can reduce potential property damage costs and loss of life. Hazards which can be mitigated, through conservation of open space include flooding, slope instability, structural fire damage, and earthquake losses. For example, leaders in Johnson County, Kansas expected to spend $120 million on stormwater control projects but voters passed a $600,000 levy to develop a county-wide streamway park system. This system addresses flooding white providing a valuable recreation resource. (National Park Service, 1990)
Roadways, riverside parks, streams and wetlands can replace a good deal of expensive infrastructure to handle drainage, water supply and water quality. The streams of southern Staten Island save New York hundreds of millions of dollars because they handle rainwater so efficiently that there is no need to build more storm sewers. Wetlands have lessen flood damage, reduce erosion, recharge the groundwater, and fitter out sediments and pollution, cutting down on the need for expensive water-treatment facilities. The New York Times states that New York city plans to spend $250 million on watershed protection in order to avoid spending $5 billion on a federally mandated water filtration system. (Trust for Public Land, 1994)
In 1990, "Trails for all Americans" study showed the benefits of an integrated system as follows; enhancement of physical health and alternate transportation routes as automobile traffic increasingly clogs city streets and creates pollution. (Jensen, 1995)
Environment Network News (1996) reported on good news, that there are some environmentally sound physical changes and socially sustainable practices that are being implemented to strike a balance in our urban strategies. This viable alternative is creating a network of ‘greenways’ or ‘carefree expressways’ – they are developed on abandoned railway line lands, these multi-use green corridors would provide a transportation alternative and connect inner city communities - CP Rail lines turned into greenways. Some of the benefits of greenways are:
Rails to traits are not only an excellent opportunity for the development of additional bicycle and pedestrian facilities, but have also proven themselves to be successful in improving access to public transit when LRT stations are isolated. Thus greenways serve several purposes; they
Rails-to-trails has caught on in the US; 800 traits now exist, totaling 7,000 miles in length. Perhaps in the future for Canada, 'trail' for us is the possibility of our urban greenway system connecting to provincial and national traits. For a national overview of some of the 'rails to greenways' developed in Canada go to the world wide web at http://goforgreen.ca/rtg/rtg.html (Burns, 1996)
The Active Living 'Go for Green!' program prepared a paper on the 'Benefits of Creating Communities and Opportunities for Active Transportation' - see internet address: (http://goforgreen.ca/temp/resources/transport.html). This report sansport.htmltates that 'creating communities and opportunities for active transportation does more than promote a healthier population and environment. In fact, the time is ripe for urban planners, transportation engineers, recreation planners and health promotion sector to advance the case for compact mixed use land planning i.e., mixed residential, business and communities facilities with traits and pathways which are accessible to all. The benefits of creating communities for active transportation are:
Some of the community benefits of substituting walking and cycling for short car trips are:
Commuting has a negative effect on commuters psychological state (stress, insomnia) and on the quality of family and social life. To make ends meets, many families have two people working outside the home and commuting long distances. The average Canadian commuter spends 48 minutes on a typical weekday going to and from work. (23% spend more than 60 minutes and 10% spend more than 90 minutes.) Walking and cycling along a tree-lined linear parkway/greenway or trail or pathway offers a pleasant way to combine exercise and transportation/ (http://goforgreen.ca/temp/resources/transport.html)
Borrie indicated that wilderness has cultural meaning and expressive properties beyond the goat properties of aesthetics and usefulness for enjoyable experiences. (Borrie et al., 1995)
Edmonton's Capital City Savings has invested significantly in a cooperative program with elementary schools that stimulates student art depicting environmental themes. The program encourages students to think deeply about environmental issues; and the resulting art displays and annual calendars promote the environmental message even more broadly. (Alberta Community Development, undated)
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